Post by Hatzegopteryx on Jun 17, 2014 17:41:14 GMT -7
Saltwater Crocodile - Crocodylus porosus
Scientific Classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(Unranked): Opisthokonta
(Unranked): Holozoa
(Unranked): Filozoa
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
(unranked): Bilateria
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Cephalochordata
Clade: Craniata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
(unranked): Teleostomi
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Clade: Reptiliomorpha
Clade: Amniota
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Sauropsida
Clade: Eureptilia
Clade: Romeriida
Clade: Diapsida
Clade: Neodiapsida
Clade: Archosauromorpha
Clade: Archosauriformes
Clade: Crurotarsi
Clade: Archosauria
Clade: Pseudosuchia
Clade: Suchia
Informal group: †Rauisuchia
Clade: Paracrocodylomorpha
Clade: Loricata
Clade: Bathyotica
Superorder: Crocodylomorpha
Clade: Crocodyliformes
Clade: Mesoeucrocodylia
Clade: Metasuchia
Clade: Neosuchia
Clade: Eusuchia
Order: Crocodilia
Clade: Brevirostres
Superfamily: Crocodyloidea
Family: Crocodylidae
Subfamily: Crocodylinae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: Crocodylus porosus
Range of the Saltwater Crocodile in black
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), also known as saltie, estuarine or Indo-Pacific crocodile, is the largest of all living reptiles, as well as the largest terrestrial and riparian predator in the world. The males of this species can reach sizes of up to 6.7 m (22 ft) and weigh as much as 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). However, an adult male saltwater crocodile is generally between 4.3 and 5.2 m (14 and 17 ft) in length and weighs 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb), rarely growing larger. Females are much smaller and often do not surpass 3 m (9.8 ft). As its name implies, this crocodile can live in salt water, but usually resides in mangrove swamps, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, and lower stretches of rivers. They have the broadest distribution of any modern crocodile, ranging from the eastern coast of India, throughout most of Southeast Asia, stretching south to northern Australia, and historically ranging as far west as just beyond the eastern coast of Africa and as far east as waters off the coast of Japan.
The saltwater crocodile is a formidable and opportunistic hypercarnivorous "apex" ambush predator capable of taking almost any animal that enters its territory, including fish, crustaceans, reptiles, birds and mammals, including other predators. Due to their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles are the most dangerous extant crocodilian to humans.
Taxonomy and Evolution
Crocodylus porosus is believed to have a direct link to similar crocodilians that inhabited the shorelines of the supercontinent Gondwana (which included what is now the Australian continent) as long ago as 98 million years and were survivors of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Fossils of Isisfordia, discovered in outback western Queensland (once a vast inland sea) though smaller in size, show attributes of direct lineage to Crocodylus porosus, suggesting that it occupied a similar habitat, with vertebra indicating that it shared the ability to death roll during feeding. Incomplete fossil records make it difficult to accurately trace the emergence of the species. The genome was fully sequenced in 2007. The earliest fossil evidence of the species dates to approximately 4-4.5 million years ago and there are no known subspecies. Scientists estimate that Crocodylus porosus is an ancient species that could have diverged anywhere from 12 to 6 million years ago.
Characteristics
The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However it has a longer muzzle than the mugger crocodile; its length is twice its width at the base. The saltwater crocodile has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians. On this species, a pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are small compared to other species. The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator. The head is very large. Skull lengths of more than 75 cm (30 in) have been confirmed for the species and mandibular lengths have been reported of up to 98.3 cm (38.7 in) (female skull lengths of over 50 cm (20 in) are exceptional). The teeth are also long, with the largest teeth (the fourth tooth from the front on the lower jaw) having been measured to 9 cm (3.5 in) in length. If detached from the body, the head of a very large male crocodile can reportedly scale over 200 kg (440 lb) alone.
Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour on saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.
Size
Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 25–30 cm (9.8–11.8 in) long and weigh an average of 70 g (2.5 oz). By their second year, young crocodiles will grow to 1 m (3.3 ft) long and weigh 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Males reach sexual maturity at around 3.3 m (11 ft) at around 16 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at 2.1 m (6.9 ft) and 12–14 years of age. An adult male saltwater crocodile is normally 4.3–5.2 m (14–17 ft) long, weighing 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb). However, large, mature males can exceed 6 m (20 ft) in length and weigh more than 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record was 6.3 m (20.7 ft) long, and weighed over 1,360 kg (3,000 lbs). The largest living individuals can surpass 7.1 metres (23 ft). Due to extensive poaching during the 20th century, such individuals are extremely rare today, as it takes a long time for the crocodiles to attain those sizes. There is also the possibility of an earlier presence of particular genes that led to such large-sized saltwater crocodiles, genes that were ultimately lost from the overall gene pool due to trophy hunting. However, with recent restoration of saltwater crocodile habitat and reduced poaching, the numbers of large crocodiles are increasing, especially in Odisha, India. Recently, Guinness has accepted a 7.1-metre (23 ft), 2,000-kg (4,400-lb) male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha. However, due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions has yet to be verified. Currently, four other crocodiles over 6 m (20 ft) live in the Bhitarkanika Park. In the future, if conservation efforts pay off, these large individuals could be more common. This species is the only extant crocodilian to regularly reach or exceed 5.2 m (17 ft).
The main determinant of weight is length. The weight of a crocodile will increase steeply as length increases. A 10 cm (3.9 in) increase in a 1 m (3.3 ft) crocodile would result in a 900 g (2.0 lb) increase in weight, but a 34 kg (75 lb) gain in the case of a 5 m (16 ft) long individual. This explains 6 m (20 ft) individuals being more than twice the weight of 5 m (16 ft) individuals. Weight can also vary enormously based on condition and age; older males tend to outweigh younger ones since they maintain prime territories with access to better, more abundant prey. For example, crocodiles at 4.8 m (16 ft) long usually range in mass from 422 to 950 kg (930 to 2,094 lb). On average, though, these 4.8 m (16 ft) individual would weigh around 520 kg (1,150 lb), and at 5.5–5.8 m (18–19 ft) would weigh about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). This species has the greatest sexual dimorphism of any modern crocodilian, with the females being much smaller than males. Typical female body lengths range from 2.3–3.5 m (7.5–11.5 ft). Females at 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, such as Connie and Cookie, kept at the Australia Zoo, weigh 150 kg (330 lb). A female of a median length of 2.7 m (8.9 ft) will weigh about 80 kg (180 lb) to 100 kg (220 lb). The largest female on record measured about 4.2 m (14 ft).
Distribution
The saltwater crocodile is one of the three crocodilians found in India, the other two being the more widespread, smaller mugger crocodile and the narrow-snouted, fish-eating gharial. Apart from the eastern coast of India, the saltwater crocodile is extremely rare on the Indian subcontinent. A huge population, consisting of many large adults, several over 6 m (20 ft), including a 7 m (23 ft) male, is present within the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary of Odisha and they are known to be present in smaller numbers throughout the Indian and Bangladeshi portions of the Sundarbans. Populations are also present within the mangrove forests and other coastal areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. Saltwater crocodiles were once present throughout most of the island of Sri Lanka but remain mostly within protected areas such as Yala National Park, which also has a large population of mugger crocodiles.
In northern Australia (which includes the northernmost parts of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, and Queensland), the saltwater crocodile is thriving, particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin (such as the Adelaide, Mary, and Daly Rivers, along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries), where large individuals of more than 5 m (16 ft) in length are not uncommon. The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at between 100,000 and 200,000 adults. In Australia, the species coexists with the smaller, narrow-snouted Johnston's or freshwater crocodile. Their range extends from Broome in Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Rockhampton in Queensland. The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory. In New Guinea, they are also common, existing within the coastal reaches of virtually every river system in the country, such as the Fly River, along with all estuaries and mangroves, where they overlap in range with the rarer, less aggressive New Guinea crocodile. They are also present in varying numbers throughout the Bismarck Archipelago, the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands, the Maluku Islands and many other islands within the region, including Timor, and most islands within the Torres Strait.
The saltwater crocodile was historically known to be widespread throughout southeast Asia, but is now extinct throughout much of this range. This species has not been reported in the wild for decades in most of Indochina and is extinct in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and possibly Cambodia. The status of this species is critical within much of Myanmar, but there is a stable population of many large adults present in the Irrawaddy Delta. Probably, the only country in Indochina still harbouring wild populations of this species is Myanmar. Although saltwater crocodiles were once very common in the Mekong Delta (from where they disappeared in the 1980s) and other river systems, the future of this species in Indochina is now looking grim. However, it is also the least likely of crocodilians to become globally extinct due to its wide distribution and almost precolonial population sizes in Northern Australia and New Guinea.
The saltwater crocodile has been long extinct in China, where it inhabited the southern coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam. References to large crocodiles that preyed on both humans and livestock appeared during the Han dynasty and Song Dynasty, where it occurred in the lower Pearl River near present day Hong Kong and Macau, the Han River, the Min River in the north, portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island. The presence of crocodiles in Fujian province represent the northernmost distribution of the species.
The population is sporadic in Indonesia and Malaysia, with some areas harbouring large populations (Borneo and Sumatra, for example) and others with very small, at-risk populations (e.g., Peninsular Malaysia). Despite the close proximity to the crocodile hotbed of northern Australia, crocodiles no longer exist in Bali. This species is also reportedly extinct on Lombok, Komodo and most of Java. A small population may remain within Ujung Kulon National Park in western Java. The saltwater crocodile is also present in very limited parts of the South Pacific, with an average population in the Solomon Islands, a very small and soon to be extinct population in Vanuatu (where the population officially stands at only three) and a decent but at-risk population (which may be rebounding) in Palau. They once ranged as far west as the east coast of Africa to the Seychelles Islands. These crocodiles were once believed to be a population of Nile crocodiles, but they were later proven to be Crocodylus porosus.
Because of its tendency to travel very long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles have been known to occasionally appear in areas far away from their general range. Vagrant individuals have historically been reported on New Caledonia, Iwo Jima, Fiji, and even in the relatively frigid Sea of Japan (thousands of miles from their native territory.) In late 2008/early 2009, a handful of wild saltwater crocodiles were verified to be living within the river systems of Fraser Island, hundreds of kilometres from, and in much cooler water than, their normal Queensland range. These crocodiles did indeed migrate south to the island from northern Queensland during the warmer wet season and presumably returned to the north upon the seasonal temperature drop. Despite the surprise and shock within the Fraser Island public, this is apparently not new behaviour, and in the distant past, wild crocodiles had been reported occasionally appearing as far south as Brisbane during the warmer wet season.
Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season, and sometimes travelling far out to sea. Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory, with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams. Junior crocodiles are thus forced into the more marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean. This explains the large distribution of the animal (ranging from the east coast of India to northern Australia), as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion (such as the Sea of Japan). Like all crocodiles, they can survive for prolonged periods only in warm temperatures, and crocodiles will seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit.
Biology
The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait which alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions. The only other species that exhibits regular seagoing behaviour is the American crocodile, but the American variety is still not considered to be as marine-prone as the saltwater crocodile. As its alternate name "sea-going crocodile" implies, this species travels between areas separated by sea, or simply uses the relative ease of travelling through water in order to circumvent long distances on the same land mass, such as Australia. In a similar fashion to migratory birds using thermal columns, saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances. In a study, 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters; 8 of these crocodiles ventured out into open ocean, in which one of them travelled 590 km (370 mi) in 25 days. Another specimen, a 4.84-m-long male, travelled 411 km (255 mi) in 20 days. Without having to move around much, sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy. They will even interrupt their travels, residing in sheltered bays for a few days, when the current is against the desired direction of travel, until the current changes direction. Crocodiles also travel up and down in river systems, periodically.
While most crocodilians are social animals sharing basking spots and food, saltwater crocodiles are more territorial and are less tolerant of their own kind; adult males will share territory with females, but drive off rival males. Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.
Generally very lethargic, a trait which helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile typically loiters in the water or basks in the sun through much of the day, preferring to hunt at night. A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer; conversely, they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter. Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water. They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spending little time on land other than basking. At times, they can spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases, barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative of the long periods they spend at sea.
Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising quickness and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey. They are capable of explosive bursts of speed when launching an attack from the water. They can also swim at 15 to 18 mph (24 to 29 km/h) in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually go at 2 to 3 mph (3.2 to 4.8 km/h). However, stories of crocodiles being faster than a race horse for short distances across land are little more than urban legend. At the water's edge, however, where they can combine propulsion from both feet and tail, their speed can be explosive.
While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals (as low as 0.05% of body weight in the saltwater crocodile), saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning, learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change, and may possess a deeper language ability than currently accepted.
Diet
Like most crocodilians, saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food, and readily vary their prey selection according to availability, nor are they voracious, as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period. Because of their size, saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian. Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals, such as small fish, frogs, insects and small aquatic invertebrates. In addition to these prey, juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, various amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, such as large gastropods and cephalopods, birds, small to medium-sized mammals, and other reptiles, such as snakes and lizards. The larger the animal grows, the greater the variety of its diet, although relatively small prey are taken throughout its lifetime. Among crustacean prey, large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed, especially in mangrove habitats. Ground-living birds, such as the emu and different kinds of water birds, are the most commonly preyed upon birds, due to the increased chance of encounter. Even swift-flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water, as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food. Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates, such as the greater mouse-deer and hog deer. Various mammalian species including, crab-eating macaques, gibbons, porcupines, wallabies, mongoose, civets, flying foxes, hares, rodents, badgers, otters, fishing cats and chevrotains are readily taken when encountered. Large crocodiles, even the oldest males, do not ignore small species when the opportunity arises. However, larger animals are seldom attacked.
Animals taken by adult crocodiles include deer (such as sambar, muntjac and chital), wild boar, tapirs, monkeys, kangaroos, dingos, dholes, jackals, orangutans, turtles, pythons, monitor lizards, Asian antelopes, such as serow and nilgai, and large bovines, such as banteng, water buffalo, and gaur. As a seagoing species, the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals, including sea snakes, sea turtles (which are usually taken during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore), sea birds, dugongs, rays, and sharks (which are usually coastal species, such as reef sharks, nurse sharks, and even bull sharks). Any type of domestic livestock, such as chicken, sheep, pigs, horses and cattle, and domesticated animals/pets may be eaten. Saltwater crocodiles are dominant over other crocodilians, regularly out-competing and occasionally killing and eating other species, as has been recorded largely with freshwater crocodiles in Australia.
Other large predators within their range such as sun bears, tigers and leopards are occasionally taken by adult crocodiles. Water buffalo and gaur, which may weigh over a ton, are considered conventionally as the largest prey taken by male crocodiles. Perhaps the only non-marine animal in this species' range that it has not been known to prey on is the adult Asian elephant. It is an extremely powerful animal; in one case, a one-tonne Suffolk stallion known to haul over two tonnes was pulled into water to its demise by a large male saltwater crocodile. In 2011, the first confirmed report of predation of an adult tiger was reported.
As with other crocodilians, their sharp, peg-like teeth are well-suited to seize and tightly grip prey, but not designed to shear flesh. Small prey is simply swallowed whole, while larger animals are forcibly dragged into deep water and drowned. Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by "death rolling" (the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat) or by sudden jerks of the head.
Bite
Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any animal today and a large saltie can crush a full-grown bovid's skull between its jaws. A 5.2 m (17 ft)-long saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting, with a bite force value of 16,000 N (3,700 lbf) (surpassing the previous record of 9,450 N (2,125 lbf) made by a 3.9 m (13 ft)-long American alligator). Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force the bite forces of multiple crocodile species, 6.7 m (22 ft) individuals were estimated at 6,187 lbf (27,520 N) to 7,736 lbf (34,410 N).The study, led by Dr. Gregory M. Erickson, also shed light to the larger, extinct species of crocodilians. Since crocodile anatomy has changed only slightly for the last 80 million years, current data on modern crocodilians can be used to estimate the bite force of extinct species. An 11–12 m (36–39 ft) long Deinosuchus would apply a force of 23,100 lbf (103,000 N), twice that of the latest, higher bite force estimations of Tyrannosaurus rex. The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff, almost as hard as bone to the touch, such that it can appear to be the continuum of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape.
Conservation status
In addition to being hunted for its meat and eggs, the saltwater crocodile has the most commercially valuable skin of any crocodilian; and unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range, with the population in northern Australia reduced 95% by 1971. The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found – Western Australia (since 1970), Northern Territory (since 1971) and Queensland (since 1974). Illegal hunting still persists in some areas, with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective, and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range. Despite this, the species has made a dramatic recovery in recent decades. Because of its resurgence, the species is considered of minimal concern for extinction. Currently, the species is listed in CITES as follows:
Habitat loss continues to be a major problem. In northern Australia, much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo, although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably. Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain, subtle habitat alterations can be a problem, such as in the Andaman Islands, where freshwater areas, used for nesting, are being increasingly converted to human agriculture. After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned, perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can be to humans and the resulting negative view of the crocodile.
Attacks on Humans
Saltwater crocodiles have a strong tendency to treat humans in their territory as prey, and have a long history of attacking humans who stray into their territory. Given their power, size and speed, survival of a direct predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make contact. In distinct contrast to the American policy of encouraging a certain degree of habitat coexistence with alligators, the only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to avoid their territory whenever possible, as they tend to be highly aggressive when encroached upon.
Exact data on attacks are limited outside of Australia, where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year. The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at many at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches. In the large Aboriginal community of Arnhem Land, attacks frequently go unreported. Also, recent, less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo, Sumatra, Eastern India (Andaman Islands), and Burma.
Many attacks in areas outside of Australia are believed to go unreported, with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year. Some attacks appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature, with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area (including boats). Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters, which comprise about half of all attacks. Non-fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of 3 m (9.8 ft) or less in length. Fatal attacks, most likely predatory in nature, commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of 4.3 m (14 ft). Under normal circumstances, Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles. This is most likely because of the plethora of people in Africa who rely on riparian areas for their livelihood, which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia.
During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945, saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers. British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating, condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles. Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985, on ecofeminist Val Plumwood, who survived the attack.
Cultural References
According to Wondjina, the mythology of Indigenous Australians, the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large, unlike the freshwater crocodile, which was somewhat revered. As such, Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare, although examples of up to 3,000 years old can be found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land, roughly matching the species distribution. The species is frequently depicted in contemporary aboriginal art.
The species is featured on several postage stamps, including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12-cent stamp; a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species; a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp; a 1994 Palau 20-cent stamp; a 1997 Australian 22-cent stamp; and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp.
The species has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the Crocodile Dundee series of film and The Crocodile Hunter television series. There are now several saltwater crocodile-themed parks in Australia.
The crocodile is considered to be holy on Timor. According to legend, the island was formed by a giant crocodile.
Examples of large Crocodiles
The largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile is the subject of considerable controversy. The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient/inconclusive data or exaggeration from the hunter's point of view. This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded by any individual, amateur or professional, with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution. Below, in descending order starting from the largest, are some examples of large crocodiles, confirmed or unconfirmed, recorded throughout history.
Sources
Scientific Classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(Unranked): Opisthokonta
(Unranked): Holozoa
(Unranked): Filozoa
Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
(unranked): Bilateria
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Cephalochordata
Clade: Craniata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
(unranked): Teleostomi
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Clade: Reptiliomorpha
Clade: Amniota
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Sauropsida
Clade: Eureptilia
Clade: Romeriida
Clade: Diapsida
Clade: Neodiapsida
Clade: Archosauromorpha
Clade: Archosauriformes
Clade: Crurotarsi
Clade: Archosauria
Clade: Pseudosuchia
Clade: Suchia
Informal group: †Rauisuchia
Clade: Paracrocodylomorpha
Clade: Loricata
Clade: Bathyotica
Superorder: Crocodylomorpha
Clade: Crocodyliformes
Clade: Mesoeucrocodylia
Clade: Metasuchia
Clade: Neosuchia
Clade: Eusuchia
Order: Crocodilia
Clade: Brevirostres
Superfamily: Crocodyloidea
Family: Crocodylidae
Subfamily: Crocodylinae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: Crocodylus porosus
Range of the Saltwater Crocodile in black
The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), also known as saltie, estuarine or Indo-Pacific crocodile, is the largest of all living reptiles, as well as the largest terrestrial and riparian predator in the world. The males of this species can reach sizes of up to 6.7 m (22 ft) and weigh as much as 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). However, an adult male saltwater crocodile is generally between 4.3 and 5.2 m (14 and 17 ft) in length and weighs 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb), rarely growing larger. Females are much smaller and often do not surpass 3 m (9.8 ft). As its name implies, this crocodile can live in salt water, but usually resides in mangrove swamps, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, and lower stretches of rivers. They have the broadest distribution of any modern crocodile, ranging from the eastern coast of India, throughout most of Southeast Asia, stretching south to northern Australia, and historically ranging as far west as just beyond the eastern coast of Africa and as far east as waters off the coast of Japan.
The saltwater crocodile is a formidable and opportunistic hypercarnivorous "apex" ambush predator capable of taking almost any animal that enters its territory, including fish, crustaceans, reptiles, birds and mammals, including other predators. Due to their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles are the most dangerous extant crocodilian to humans.
Taxonomy and Evolution
Crocodylus porosus is believed to have a direct link to similar crocodilians that inhabited the shorelines of the supercontinent Gondwana (which included what is now the Australian continent) as long ago as 98 million years and were survivors of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Fossils of Isisfordia, discovered in outback western Queensland (once a vast inland sea) though smaller in size, show attributes of direct lineage to Crocodylus porosus, suggesting that it occupied a similar habitat, with vertebra indicating that it shared the ability to death roll during feeding. Incomplete fossil records make it difficult to accurately trace the emergence of the species. The genome was fully sequenced in 2007. The earliest fossil evidence of the species dates to approximately 4-4.5 million years ago and there are no known subspecies. Scientists estimate that Crocodylus porosus is an ancient species that could have diverged anywhere from 12 to 6 million years ago.
Characteristics
The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However it has a longer muzzle than the mugger crocodile; its length is twice its width at the base. The saltwater crocodile has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians. On this species, a pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are small compared to other species. The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator. The head is very large. Skull lengths of more than 75 cm (30 in) have been confirmed for the species and mandibular lengths have been reported of up to 98.3 cm (38.7 in) (female skull lengths of over 50 cm (20 in) are exceptional). The teeth are also long, with the largest teeth (the fourth tooth from the front on the lower jaw) having been measured to 9 cm (3.5 in) in length. If detached from the body, the head of a very large male crocodile can reportedly scale over 200 kg (440 lb) alone.
Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour on saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.
Size
Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 25–30 cm (9.8–11.8 in) long and weigh an average of 70 g (2.5 oz). By their second year, young crocodiles will grow to 1 m (3.3 ft) long and weigh 2.5 kg (5.5 lb). Males reach sexual maturity at around 3.3 m (11 ft) at around 16 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at 2.1 m (6.9 ft) and 12–14 years of age. An adult male saltwater crocodile is normally 4.3–5.2 m (14–17 ft) long, weighing 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb). However, large, mature males can exceed 6 m (20 ft) in length and weigh more than 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record was 6.3 m (20.7 ft) long, and weighed over 1,360 kg (3,000 lbs). The largest living individuals can surpass 7.1 metres (23 ft). Due to extensive poaching during the 20th century, such individuals are extremely rare today, as it takes a long time for the crocodiles to attain those sizes. There is also the possibility of an earlier presence of particular genes that led to such large-sized saltwater crocodiles, genes that were ultimately lost from the overall gene pool due to trophy hunting. However, with recent restoration of saltwater crocodile habitat and reduced poaching, the numbers of large crocodiles are increasing, especially in Odisha, India. Recently, Guinness has accepted a 7.1-metre (23 ft), 2,000-kg (4,400-lb) male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha. However, due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions has yet to be verified. Currently, four other crocodiles over 6 m (20 ft) live in the Bhitarkanika Park. In the future, if conservation efforts pay off, these large individuals could be more common. This species is the only extant crocodilian to regularly reach or exceed 5.2 m (17 ft).
The main determinant of weight is length. The weight of a crocodile will increase steeply as length increases. A 10 cm (3.9 in) increase in a 1 m (3.3 ft) crocodile would result in a 900 g (2.0 lb) increase in weight, but a 34 kg (75 lb) gain in the case of a 5 m (16 ft) long individual. This explains 6 m (20 ft) individuals being more than twice the weight of 5 m (16 ft) individuals. Weight can also vary enormously based on condition and age; older males tend to outweigh younger ones since they maintain prime territories with access to better, more abundant prey. For example, crocodiles at 4.8 m (16 ft) long usually range in mass from 422 to 950 kg (930 to 2,094 lb). On average, though, these 4.8 m (16 ft) individual would weigh around 520 kg (1,150 lb), and at 5.5–5.8 m (18–19 ft) would weigh about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). This species has the greatest sexual dimorphism of any modern crocodilian, with the females being much smaller than males. Typical female body lengths range from 2.3–3.5 m (7.5–11.5 ft). Females at 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, such as Connie and Cookie, kept at the Australia Zoo, weigh 150 kg (330 lb). A female of a median length of 2.7 m (8.9 ft) will weigh about 80 kg (180 lb) to 100 kg (220 lb). The largest female on record measured about 4.2 m (14 ft).
Distribution
The saltwater crocodile is one of the three crocodilians found in India, the other two being the more widespread, smaller mugger crocodile and the narrow-snouted, fish-eating gharial. Apart from the eastern coast of India, the saltwater crocodile is extremely rare on the Indian subcontinent. A huge population, consisting of many large adults, several over 6 m (20 ft), including a 7 m (23 ft) male, is present within the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary of Odisha and they are known to be present in smaller numbers throughout the Indian and Bangladeshi portions of the Sundarbans. Populations are also present within the mangrove forests and other coastal areas of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. Saltwater crocodiles were once present throughout most of the island of Sri Lanka but remain mostly within protected areas such as Yala National Park, which also has a large population of mugger crocodiles.
In northern Australia (which includes the northernmost parts of the Northern Territory, Western Australia, and Queensland), the saltwater crocodile is thriving, particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin (such as the Adelaide, Mary, and Daly Rivers, along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries), where large individuals of more than 5 m (16 ft) in length are not uncommon. The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at between 100,000 and 200,000 adults. In Australia, the species coexists with the smaller, narrow-snouted Johnston's or freshwater crocodile. Their range extends from Broome in Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Rockhampton in Queensland. The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory. In New Guinea, they are also common, existing within the coastal reaches of virtually every river system in the country, such as the Fly River, along with all estuaries and mangroves, where they overlap in range with the rarer, less aggressive New Guinea crocodile. They are also present in varying numbers throughout the Bismarck Archipelago, the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands, the Maluku Islands and many other islands within the region, including Timor, and most islands within the Torres Strait.
The saltwater crocodile was historically known to be widespread throughout southeast Asia, but is now extinct throughout much of this range. This species has not been reported in the wild for decades in most of Indochina and is extinct in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and possibly Cambodia. The status of this species is critical within much of Myanmar, but there is a stable population of many large adults present in the Irrawaddy Delta. Probably, the only country in Indochina still harbouring wild populations of this species is Myanmar. Although saltwater crocodiles were once very common in the Mekong Delta (from where they disappeared in the 1980s) and other river systems, the future of this species in Indochina is now looking grim. However, it is also the least likely of crocodilians to become globally extinct due to its wide distribution and almost precolonial population sizes in Northern Australia and New Guinea.
The saltwater crocodile has been long extinct in China, where it inhabited the southern coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam. References to large crocodiles that preyed on both humans and livestock appeared during the Han dynasty and Song Dynasty, where it occurred in the lower Pearl River near present day Hong Kong and Macau, the Han River, the Min River in the north, portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island. The presence of crocodiles in Fujian province represent the northernmost distribution of the species.
The population is sporadic in Indonesia and Malaysia, with some areas harbouring large populations (Borneo and Sumatra, for example) and others with very small, at-risk populations (e.g., Peninsular Malaysia). Despite the close proximity to the crocodile hotbed of northern Australia, crocodiles no longer exist in Bali. This species is also reportedly extinct on Lombok, Komodo and most of Java. A small population may remain within Ujung Kulon National Park in western Java. The saltwater crocodile is also present in very limited parts of the South Pacific, with an average population in the Solomon Islands, a very small and soon to be extinct population in Vanuatu (where the population officially stands at only three) and a decent but at-risk population (which may be rebounding) in Palau. They once ranged as far west as the east coast of Africa to the Seychelles Islands. These crocodiles were once believed to be a population of Nile crocodiles, but they were later proven to be Crocodylus porosus.
Because of its tendency to travel very long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles have been known to occasionally appear in areas far away from their general range. Vagrant individuals have historically been reported on New Caledonia, Iwo Jima, Fiji, and even in the relatively frigid Sea of Japan (thousands of miles from their native territory.) In late 2008/early 2009, a handful of wild saltwater crocodiles were verified to be living within the river systems of Fraser Island, hundreds of kilometres from, and in much cooler water than, their normal Queensland range. These crocodiles did indeed migrate south to the island from northern Queensland during the warmer wet season and presumably returned to the north upon the seasonal temperature drop. Despite the surprise and shock within the Fraser Island public, this is apparently not new behaviour, and in the distant past, wild crocodiles had been reported occasionally appearing as far south as Brisbane during the warmer wet season.
Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season, and sometimes travelling far out to sea. Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory, with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams. Junior crocodiles are thus forced into the more marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean. This explains the large distribution of the animal (ranging from the east coast of India to northern Australia), as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion (such as the Sea of Japan). Like all crocodiles, they can survive for prolonged periods only in warm temperatures, and crocodiles will seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit.
Biology
The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait which alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions. The only other species that exhibits regular seagoing behaviour is the American crocodile, but the American variety is still not considered to be as marine-prone as the saltwater crocodile. As its alternate name "sea-going crocodile" implies, this species travels between areas separated by sea, or simply uses the relative ease of travelling through water in order to circumvent long distances on the same land mass, such as Australia. In a similar fashion to migratory birds using thermal columns, saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances. In a study, 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters; 8 of these crocodiles ventured out into open ocean, in which one of them travelled 590 km (370 mi) in 25 days. Another specimen, a 4.84-m-long male, travelled 411 km (255 mi) in 20 days. Without having to move around much, sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy. They will even interrupt their travels, residing in sheltered bays for a few days, when the current is against the desired direction of travel, until the current changes direction. Crocodiles also travel up and down in river systems, periodically.
While most crocodilians are social animals sharing basking spots and food, saltwater crocodiles are more territorial and are less tolerant of their own kind; adult males will share territory with females, but drive off rival males. Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.
Generally very lethargic, a trait which helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile typically loiters in the water or basks in the sun through much of the day, preferring to hunt at night. A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer; conversely, they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter. Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water. They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spending little time on land other than basking. At times, they can spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases, barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative of the long periods they spend at sea.
Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising quickness and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey. They are capable of explosive bursts of speed when launching an attack from the water. They can also swim at 15 to 18 mph (24 to 29 km/h) in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually go at 2 to 3 mph (3.2 to 4.8 km/h). However, stories of crocodiles being faster than a race horse for short distances across land are little more than urban legend. At the water's edge, however, where they can combine propulsion from both feet and tail, their speed can be explosive.
While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals (as low as 0.05% of body weight in the saltwater crocodile), saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning, learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change, and may possess a deeper language ability than currently accepted.
Diet
Like most crocodilians, saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food, and readily vary their prey selection according to availability, nor are they voracious, as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period. Because of their size, saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian. Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals, such as small fish, frogs, insects and small aquatic invertebrates. In addition to these prey, juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, various amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, such as large gastropods and cephalopods, birds, small to medium-sized mammals, and other reptiles, such as snakes and lizards. The larger the animal grows, the greater the variety of its diet, although relatively small prey are taken throughout its lifetime. Among crustacean prey, large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed, especially in mangrove habitats. Ground-living birds, such as the emu and different kinds of water birds, are the most commonly preyed upon birds, due to the increased chance of encounter. Even swift-flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water, as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food. Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates, such as the greater mouse-deer and hog deer. Various mammalian species including, crab-eating macaques, gibbons, porcupines, wallabies, mongoose, civets, flying foxes, hares, rodents, badgers, otters, fishing cats and chevrotains are readily taken when encountered. Large crocodiles, even the oldest males, do not ignore small species when the opportunity arises. However, larger animals are seldom attacked.
Animals taken by adult crocodiles include deer (such as sambar, muntjac and chital), wild boar, tapirs, monkeys, kangaroos, dingos, dholes, jackals, orangutans, turtles, pythons, monitor lizards, Asian antelopes, such as serow and nilgai, and large bovines, such as banteng, water buffalo, and gaur. As a seagoing species, the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals, including sea snakes, sea turtles (which are usually taken during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore), sea birds, dugongs, rays, and sharks (which are usually coastal species, such as reef sharks, nurse sharks, and even bull sharks). Any type of domestic livestock, such as chicken, sheep, pigs, horses and cattle, and domesticated animals/pets may be eaten. Saltwater crocodiles are dominant over other crocodilians, regularly out-competing and occasionally killing and eating other species, as has been recorded largely with freshwater crocodiles in Australia.
Other large predators within their range such as sun bears, tigers and leopards are occasionally taken by adult crocodiles. Water buffalo and gaur, which may weigh over a ton, are considered conventionally as the largest prey taken by male crocodiles. Perhaps the only non-marine animal in this species' range that it has not been known to prey on is the adult Asian elephant. It is an extremely powerful animal; in one case, a one-tonne Suffolk stallion known to haul over two tonnes was pulled into water to its demise by a large male saltwater crocodile. In 2011, the first confirmed report of predation of an adult tiger was reported.
As with other crocodilians, their sharp, peg-like teeth are well-suited to seize and tightly grip prey, but not designed to shear flesh. Small prey is simply swallowed whole, while larger animals are forcibly dragged into deep water and drowned. Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by "death rolling" (the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat) or by sudden jerks of the head.
Bite
Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any animal today and a large saltie can crush a full-grown bovid's skull between its jaws. A 5.2 m (17 ft)-long saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting, with a bite force value of 16,000 N (3,700 lbf) (surpassing the previous record of 9,450 N (2,125 lbf) made by a 3.9 m (13 ft)-long American alligator). Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force the bite forces of multiple crocodile species, 6.7 m (22 ft) individuals were estimated at 6,187 lbf (27,520 N) to 7,736 lbf (34,410 N).The study, led by Dr. Gregory M. Erickson, also shed light to the larger, extinct species of crocodilians. Since crocodile anatomy has changed only slightly for the last 80 million years, current data on modern crocodilians can be used to estimate the bite force of extinct species. An 11–12 m (36–39 ft) long Deinosuchus would apply a force of 23,100 lbf (103,000 N), twice that of the latest, higher bite force estimations of Tyrannosaurus rex. The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff, almost as hard as bone to the touch, such that it can appear to be the continuum of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape.
Conservation status
In addition to being hunted for its meat and eggs, the saltwater crocodile has the most commercially valuable skin of any crocodilian; and unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range, with the population in northern Australia reduced 95% by 1971. The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found – Western Australia (since 1970), Northern Territory (since 1971) and Queensland (since 1974). Illegal hunting still persists in some areas, with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective, and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range. Despite this, the species has made a dramatic recovery in recent decades. Because of its resurgence, the species is considered of minimal concern for extinction. Currently, the species is listed in CITES as follows:
- Appendix I (prohibiting all commercial trade in the species or its byproducts): All wild populations except for those of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
- Appendix II (commercial trade allowed with export permit; import permits may or may not be required depending on the laws of the importing country): Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea wild populations, plus all worldwide populations bred in captivity for commercial purposes
Habitat loss continues to be a major problem. In northern Australia, much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo, although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably. Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain, subtle habitat alterations can be a problem, such as in the Andaman Islands, where freshwater areas, used for nesting, are being increasingly converted to human agriculture. After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned, perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can be to humans and the resulting negative view of the crocodile.
Attacks on Humans
Saltwater crocodiles have a strong tendency to treat humans in their territory as prey, and have a long history of attacking humans who stray into their territory. Given their power, size and speed, survival of a direct predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make contact. In distinct contrast to the American policy of encouraging a certain degree of habitat coexistence with alligators, the only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to avoid their territory whenever possible, as they tend to be highly aggressive when encroached upon.
Exact data on attacks are limited outside of Australia, where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year. The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at many at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches. In the large Aboriginal community of Arnhem Land, attacks frequently go unreported. Also, recent, less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo, Sumatra, Eastern India (Andaman Islands), and Burma.
Many attacks in areas outside of Australia are believed to go unreported, with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year. Some attacks appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature, with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area (including boats). Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters, which comprise about half of all attacks. Non-fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of 3 m (9.8 ft) or less in length. Fatal attacks, most likely predatory in nature, commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of 4.3 m (14 ft). Under normal circumstances, Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles. This is most likely because of the plethora of people in Africa who rely on riparian areas for their livelihood, which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia.
During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945, saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers. British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating, condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles. Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985, on ecofeminist Val Plumwood, who survived the attack.
Cultural References
According to Wondjina, the mythology of Indigenous Australians, the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large, unlike the freshwater crocodile, which was somewhat revered. As such, Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare, although examples of up to 3,000 years old can be found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land, roughly matching the species distribution. The species is frequently depicted in contemporary aboriginal art.
The species is featured on several postage stamps, including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12-cent stamp; a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species; a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp; a 1994 Palau 20-cent stamp; a 1997 Australian 22-cent stamp; and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp.
The species has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the Crocodile Dundee series of film and The Crocodile Hunter television series. There are now several saltwater crocodile-themed parks in Australia.
The crocodile is considered to be holy on Timor. According to legend, the island was formed by a giant crocodile.
Examples of large Crocodiles
The largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile is the subject of considerable controversy. The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient/inconclusive data or exaggeration from the hunter's point of view. This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded by any individual, amateur or professional, with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution. Below, in descending order starting from the largest, are some examples of large crocodiles, confirmed or unconfirmed, recorded throughout history.
- James R. Montgomery, who ran a plantation near to the Lower Kinabatangan Segama Wetlands in Borneo from 1926 to 1932, claimed to have netted, killed, and examined numerous crocodiles well over 6.1 m (20 ft) there, including a specimen he claims measured 10 m (33 ft). However, no one scientifically confirmed any of Montgomery's specimens and no voucher specimens are known.
- A crocodile shot in the Bay of Bengal in 1840 was reported at 10 m (33 ft). This specimen is unconfirmed and no voucher remains are known
- A crocodile shot in Queensland in 1957, nicknamed Kris the croc, was reported to be 8.63 m (28.3 ft) long, but no verified measurements were made and no remains of this crocodile exist. A "replica" of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction.
- A crocodile killed in 1823 at Jalajala on the main island of Luzon in the Philippines was reported at 8.2 m (27 ft).
- The skull of crocodile shot in Odisha, India, was claimed to measure 7.6-metre (25 ft) in life, but when given scholarly examination, was thought to have come from a crocodile of a length no greater than 7 m (23 ft).
- A reported 7.6-m crocodile was killed in the Hooghly River in the Alipore District of Calcutta. However, examinations of the animal's skull actually indicated it ranged from 6.0–6.7 m (19.7–22.0 ft).
- In 2006, Guinness accepted a 7.1-metre (23 ft), 2,000-kg (4,400-lb) male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha.
- The record size for a crocodile from Papua New Guinea to be considered authentic by Guinness was a 6.32 m (20.7 ft) specimen shot in May 1966 along the northeastern coast. This specimen had a belly girth of 2.74 m (9.0 ft)
- Another seemingly authentic notable New Guinea giant, which drowned after entanglement in a fisherman's net in 1979, measured 6.2 m (20 ft), with a skull length of 72 cm (28 in).
- In September 2011, a 6.17 metres (20.2 ft) specimen was captured alive in the Philippines, making it one of the largest specimens ever reliably measured snout-to-tail. This specimen, nicknamed Lolong and weighing roughly 1,075 kg (2,370 lb), had a past as a possible man-eater and was being kept alive as an attraction in a local zoo. Lolong died on 10 February 2013 due to stress and infection.
- The official, authentic record length for a crocodile from Australia was 6.15 m (20.2 ft) for a specimen killed in the McArthur River in June 1960.
- Another confirmed Australian giant shot 16 years after that, an old male nicknamed "Big Gator" (despite actually being a crocodile, not an alligator) that had become a habitual predator of local cattle, was found after being shot to have measured 6.1 m (20 ft) and weighed 1,097 kilograms (2,418 lb).
Sources
- Erickson, GM; Gignac PM, Steppan SJ, Lappin AK, Vliet KA, et al. (2012). "Insights into the Ecology and Evolutionary Success of Crocodilians Revealed through Bite-Force and Tooth-Pressure Experimentation". PLoS ONE 7 (3): e31781.
- Guinness Book of World Records
- "Our Animals – Reptiles – Crocodilians – Saltwater Crocodile". Australia Zoo.
- "Seven-metre man-eating crocodile shot dead". The Daily Telegraph. 15 January 2007.
